Jeanne d'Arc: Delusional or Prophetic?

A Psychological Inquiry into Religious Experience

Modern psychology, in it’s effort to better understand individual human behavior, has seen fit to study and diagnose the behavior of key historical figures. According to Nolen-Hokesema (2001), psychiatric biographers have studied the lives of political leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Winston Churchill, and Napolean Bonaparte, as well as religious leaders such as Martin Luther and George Fox, in an effort to diagnose their behavior using current psychological models. Although such research is speculatory at best, it can prove beneficial in identifying specific behavioral traits that have persisted throughout history. Jeanne d’Arc, more commonly known in the English speaking World as Joan of Arc, is one such historical personality that has seemed to generate much psychological debate, and would be of interest to anyone concerned with the effects of religious experience on the human psyche.

Jeanne, a fifteenth century martyr, led a successful military campaign against the English, which she believed was the call of God on her life. According to the transcript of her trial, Jeanne testified that she was counseled by the archangel Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret, often accompanied by a great light whom she interpreted to be Jesus. Jeanne insisted that during these conversations she was instructed of God’s will for England to withdraw from aggression towards France and that the displaced Dauphin, Charles, was to be be crowned King of France. Jean never wavered in her assertion that she was under the authority of the “King of Heaven” in her mission to save the French monarchy, a belief that eventually led to her being condemned to death at Rouen in 1431.

In November of 1455, twenty-four years after Jeanne’s execution, an independent investigation was authorized by Pope Callixtus III (newworldencyclopedia.org, 2005). After what has come to be known as the Nullification or Rehabilitation Trial, the verdict of the inquisition at Rouen was overturned; On July 07, 1456, Jeanne was formally acquitted of any wrong doing by the Vatican (newworldencyclopedia.org, 2005). Pope Benedict XV brought closure on May 16, 1920, whereby, Jeanne was cannonized as a saint and the Church officially endorsed her visions as being manifest of God.

There has been much speculation to whether or not Jeanne suffered from mental illness, attested to by an estimated 12,000 books that have been written about her, in part, to address her claims (Nash-Marshall, 2001). This raises the question: According to current diagnostic standards, as defined by the Diagonostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSMV-IV, 2000); does Jeanne’s behavior fit the criteria for abnormal behavior? If so, what disorder was she affected by? And ultimately we must consider whether or not it is prudent for Psychology to treat religious experience as mental illness.

Distinguished psychologist, William James, recognized the impact that religious experience has had on the human psyche throughout history, and advocated the importance of critical evaluation. James performed case studies on some of the more dramatic conversion experiences of several historical figures, the most notable being the Christian evangelist George Fox. James reported his observations in a series of lectures at Edinburgh entitled The Varieties of Religious Experience - A study in Human Nature (1901-1902) :

 ... the most important step forward in psychology ... is the discovery ... that, in certain subjects at least, there is not only the conciousness of the ordinary field, with its usual centre and margin, but an addition thereto in the shape of a set of memories, thoughts, and feelings which are extra-marginal and outside of the primary conciousness altogether, but yet must be classed as concious facts of some sort, able to reveal their presence by unmistakeable signs ... unlike the other advances which psychology has made, this discovery has revealed to us an entirely unsuspected peculiarity in the constitution of human nature.

James (1901-1902) asserted that the occurrence of spiritual transformation has persisted throughout history and is too common an experience in individuals to be dimissed, urging his contemporaries toward further research.

James may have been the first to hypothesize that religious experience is accompanied by biological changes (1901-1902). This seems to have been validated by recent experiments at MIT (Newton, 2004), whereby neuroscientists have discovered that humans are capable of undergoing neurological and physiological changes as a result of meditation and prayer. James (1901-1902) concluded that a metamorphosis took place in religious experiences, changing the very nature of who a person was:

what is attained is often an altogether new level of spiritual vitality, a relatively heroic level, in which impossible things have become possible, and new energies and endurances are shown. The personality is changed, the man is born anew ...

This best describes the life of Jeanne d’Arc.

Much of what is historically known about Jeanne has been obtained from over 100 eyewitness accounts recorded in the trial transcript of her prosecution for witchcraft and heresy by an English Ecclesiastical Court at Rouen in 1431. I will reference the English translation by Barrett (1932). Interestingly enough, Jeanne was never found guilty of any criminal offense, of any heresy against the Church, nor of any charges of witchcraft. The misconduct that eventually allowed for Jeanne’s death sentence to be ordered and carried out was her habit of dressing in men’s clothing, which her prosecutors deemed to be demonic. According to Jeanne’s testimony at the trial, she adopted the habit after being given command of the French troops at the seige of Orleans in 1429. Scholars have speculated that this was an attempt by Jeanne to gain the respect of her male counterparts, as well as to protect herself from violation by making herself less attractive to the male soldiers.

Thorton’s biography in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910), portrays Jeanne as a devoutly religious, illiterate peasant girl, whose prophecy helped to inspire the Armagnacs (the party of the Dauphin, Charles) to victory over the Burgundian French – English alliance during the Hundred Years War. Prior to Jeanne's arrival in Chinon in 1429, the Argmanacs had lost control of France. Nash-Marshall (2001) states that the Duke of Burgundy, decided to back the English in 1417, allying with England against the Dauphin, Charles. Then Charles VI, the reigning King of France, signed a treaty with Henry V of England which made the English monarch the successor to the throne of France, displacing the Dauphin as rightful heir. By 1429, the Dauphin was on the brink of defeat; he had retreated to Bourges to set up an alternate court, and his troops were simply unable to resist the invasion of France. As a result, many key cities, including Orleans in October of 1428, had fallen to the English.

Nash-Marshall (2001) reports that Jeanne first presented herself to Lord Robert Baldicourt, in May of 1428, being adamant that God had commanded her to seek out Baldicourt and to aid the Dauphin in claiming the French crown. Jeanne was initially ridiculed by the French garrison commander. However, after Baldicourt reported to Charles that she had accurately forecast the French defeat at the Battle of the Herrings outside Orleans, the Dauphin reluctantly agreed to hold counsel with her in March of 1429 (Nash-Marshall, 2001). The Dauphin reportedly tested Jeanne, whom he had never met, by disguising his identity and forcing her to correctly select him in a crowded room (Thurston, 1910). Jean was able to easily identify him and attributed her success to having recieved a “sign” from God, through the “voices” which “counseled” her (Barrett, 1932).

Charles was further convinced of her claims during a private conversation, in which Jeanne purportedly disclosed a revelation, which she referred to as a “secret sign,” communicated to her in her conversations with “St. Mary, and St. Margaret” (Barrett, 1932). Jeanne refused to reveal what the “sign” was to her prosecutors at Rouen, but it led Charles to send her to Poitiers, where she was examined by a commitee of Bishops and doctors (Barrett, 1932). According to Thurston (1910), Charles was advised that “the theologians found nothing heretical in her claims to supernatural guidance, and, without pronouncing on the reality of her mission, they thought she might be safely employed and further tested.” When questioned at her trial, Jeanne consistently referenced her testimony to the theologians at Poitiers (Barrett, 1932). Unfortunately, the records of her testimony at Poitiers have not been preserved (Thurston, 1910).

After being scrutinized by the clergy, Charles entrusted Jeanne with command of the French troops at the seige of Orleans in March of 1429 (Nash-Marshall, 2001). On her arrival at Orleans, Jeanne had a letter transcribed and delivered to the English Commander which read:

Hand over to the Maiden, who is sent here by God the King of Heaven, the keys to all the towns you have taken and violated in France . . . in God’s name go back to your own lands. And if you will not do so, await the word of the Maiden, who will go to see you to your very great misfortune. King of England, if you do not do so, I am a commander, and whereever I come across your troops in France, I shall make them go, whether willingly, or unwillingly; and if they will not obey, I will have them wiped out. I am sent here by God King of Heaven – an eye for an eye – to drive you entirely out of France. And if they are willing to obey, I shall have mercy on them . . . (Williams, 2005).

The English did not take heed and were defeated at Orleans after a decade of military dominance over France. Jeanne liberated Loire the following month, and Charles was crowned King of France at Reims in July (Nash-Marshall, 2001). Jeanne’s prophecy was fulfilled upon Charles VII’s coronation.

After attaining the throne, Charles lost interest in the War and withdrew support and provision from Jeanne’s campaign (Thurston, 1910). Joan was wounded in the September assault on St. Denis and was unwillingly removed from the battle by the Duc d’Alencon, who abandoned the seige (Thurston, 1910). A truce was struck between Charles and Henry that winter, and it was April before Jeanne returned to battle (Lafont, 1910). Prior to her return, Jeanne stated that she had been counselled by her voices that she was to be captured by Midsummers Day (Barret, 1932). Joan was taken prisoner by the English army on May 24, 1430 at Compiegne (Thurston, 1910).

Was Jeanne mentally ill? Jeanne’s testimony and the statements of witnesses at the trial give the most accurate account of her mental state, her belief system, and her previous behavior. According to the DSM-IV (2000), Jean would have fit the description of Psychotic. The term “psychotic” was formerly defined as “delusions or prominent hallucinations, with the hallucinations occuring in the absence of insight into their pathological nature”(DSM-IV, p. 297). There is no historical evidence that would suggest that Jeanne’s visions were substance induced or related to a medical condition. This would definitely lead to “the absence of insight into their pathological nature.” The updated definition in the DSM-IV generalizes the term psychotic to mean the “presence of certain symptoms,” and allows for the definition to vary, depending on the disorder.

Jeanne would meet citeria A for Schizophrenia, defined as the “presence of two or more of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior”(DSM-IV, 2000, p. 299). As stated in the DSM-IV delusions are “erroneous beliefs that usually involve a misinterpretation of perceptions or experiences”(p. 299). The DSM-IV goes on to say: “the distinction between a delusion and a strongly held idea . . . depends in part on the degree of conviction with which the belief is held despite clear contradictory evidence regarding its veracity.” By this definition, Jeanne was not delusional; her strongly held convictions came to pass, proving their veracity after the fact. However, if Jeanne’s contemporaries would have ascribed to modern psychological standards, the examiners at Poitiers, without the advantage of precognition, would have deemed her delusional. The DSM-IV goes on to note that “certain types of auditory hallucinations (e.g. two or more voices conversing with one another or voices maintaining a running commentary on the person’s thoughts or behavior) . . . are to be considered typical schizophrenic behavior and that no other negative symptoms need be present.” At her trial in 1431, Jeanne clearly stated that she was “counselled daily” by her voices since first hearing them at the age of thirteen, and that St. Mary and St. Margaret sometimes spoke with one another before counselling her. She also described visual, olfactory, and tactile hallucinations stating that she had seen St. Mary, St. Margaret, and St. Michael “as clearly as she saw” the judges before her, describing their physical appearance, fragrance, manner of dress, and the “smooth” texture of their garments (Barrett, 1932). Jeanne clearly meets criterion A for Schizophrenia.

Criterion B of Schizophrenia, referred to by the DSM-IV (p.312) as social/occupational dysfunction, is subject to interpretation. In order to meet criteria B, it would have to be deemed that Jeanne showed “functioning” in her work, social relations, and personal care “markedly below the level prior to the onset” of her visions at the age of thirteen (DSM-IV, p.312). It is hard to assess what Jeanne’s potential was in these areas of developement, and it could be reasonably argued that she positively progressed. Jeanne transformed from an introvert to an extrovert, was highly motivated in her work, and prior to her death was a well disciplined soldier at her physical peak. In addition, she intellectually progressed from an illiterarate peasant girl to an accomplished military strategist. After her death, Jean, Bastard of Orleans, testified that “she was able to execute many marvelous maneuvers which had not been thought of by two or three accomplished generals working together (Grundy, 2000).”

Criterion C of Schizophrenia, duration, is securely met in Jeanne’s case. The DSM-IV’s prescribed length of time is at least six months of “continuous signs of the disturbance” and “at least one month of symptoms.” Jeanne’s voices and visions persisted from their onset at the age of thirteen until her untimely death at the age of nineteen.

Criterion D of Schizophrenia calls for a closer scrutiny of Jeanne’s behavior.
The DSM-IV requires the exclusion of Schizoaffective and Mood Disorders, for a diagnosis of Schizophrenia. A Schizoaffective Disorder is understood to be “an uninterrupted period of illness” during which the symptoms of criteria A of Schizophrenia manifest themselves in concurrence with the symptoms of a mood disorder (DSM-IV, p. 319). Jeanne tesified at Rouen that her voices had become increasingly urgent, and that by February of 1429, they had become desperate about seeking the audience of the Dauphin. Jeanne’s agitation with the plight of her King and her Country, along with her grandoise ideas of it being her responsibility to save France from its fate, and her increased involvement in goal oriented activities meet the three symptomatic requirements that the DSM-IV deems necessary to meet criteria A for a Manic Episode.

Criteria B requires a fourth symptom from criteria A to be present if her mood was irritable, rather than elevated or expansive. This leads to us having to draw a conclusion about Joan’s temperament without sufficient information. Jean’s temperament seems to have changed to fit her circumstances. From the testimony at her trial, Jeanne and her extremely loyal troops had developed a powerful bond. This would suggest that she was temperate, rather than aggressive with them. In her efforts to persuade Lord Baldicourt, Charles, and the commitee at Poitiers, she would have had to measure her persistence with respect and humility, which exhibits self control of her emotional states. She was, after all, only a female peasant among male nobility. Yet, in direct contrast, at St. Denis she was so tenacious that she had to be forcefully removed from the battle by one of her commanders after being wounded, and she displayed open disdain for her prosecutors at Rouen, showing that she had the propensity for aggressive behavior, given the occasion. There is simply not enough evidence to make a sound judgement as to whether or not her moods were incongruent with the situations she encountered. For this reason I do not believe that a mood disorder can be safely assumed.

Jeanne’s failure to meet criteria B of both, Schizophrenia and Mania, would make a diagnosis of these disorders unmerited. This would consequently rule out a diagnosis of Schizoaffective or Bipolar I Disorder as well. What we are left with then is the DSM-IV’s catch-all diagnosis for psychosis, Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. Once Jeanne’s grandoise visions came to pass, however, this stigma would have to be removed.

Jeanne had no definable mental illness according to current psychological standards. What is more, it is debatable whether or not Jeanne’s behavior was abnormal, as defined by the current guidelines that her behavior must be maladaptive, or be a cause of concern for the safety or comfort of herself or others. Despite her extraordinary behavior, Jeanne seems to have had gained the trust and favor of Charles VII, her examiners at Poitiers, her fellow troops, and the majority of the French population. The people who seem to have found Jeanne's behavior most disturbing and dangerous were her English adversaries.

This poses a dilemma for modern psychology. Jeanne’s experiences and statements, no matter how outlandish and bizarre, were for Jeanne, genuine religious experiences. The fact that the predictions of her voices came to be realized only adds to the conundrum. Pure skepticism can write these events off to mere happenstance, or theorize that they were simply self-fulfilling prophesies. Psychology cannot, however, without prejudice, dismiss the veracity of Jeanne’s claims, nor the effects of faith on the human psyche. In order for Jeanne to have transformed her “delusions” into reality, she needed to draw the French commander Robert Baldincourt, two kings, an entire committee of educated doctors and theologians at Poitiers, the French Military, thousands of English and Burgundian soldiers, the Ecclesiastical Court at Rouen, and the populace of France into her delusions over the span of fourteen months. This amount of influence over such a short timespan, no matter how charismatic a leader, is truly astounding.

The lack of a valid psychological explanation for what transpired in fifteenth century France leads me to the conclusion that a shortcoming of modern psychological models is their failure to recognize the effects of genuine religious experience. This is attributable to a century old notion that spirituality is a subjective experience and cannot be objectively studied using empirical methods. An added obstacle is that the biblical model of faith as defined by Hebrews 11:1, “the assurance of things hoped for, [and] the conviction of things not seen” is the psychological definition of delusional. This is most likely the belief that Jeanne adhered to, and is a scripture that continues to influence over a billion people worldwide. Under current psychological standards these people would be considered delusional.

Psychology has failed to embrace the challenge put forth by William James. A commitment to serious inquiry and unbiased empirical research into the phenomenon of religious experience is necessary if we are to gain a comprehesive understanding into human behavior. With the clear evidence of its ability to motivate individuals to greater personal acheivement, transform mental perspectives, and produce observable changes in mood, character and personality; it has become impossible, in good conscience, to continue to dismiss personal spiritual events as merely emotional, superstitious, or hallucinatory experiences. As long as the existing prejudices against faith and spirituality remain unexamined, Psychology will fall short in its claims of objectivity and the integrity of its Scientific methodology are fairly called into question.

Lawrence Christopher Skufca (2005)
Some Rights Reserved

(Motivational Contributors: Dana Leighton, Toni Bryant, and God our Father in Heaven, who is the author of all inspiration in the pursuit of truth and understanding)

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